HR Strategic aspects of the labour market and Managing organisational performance Essay Example for Free

HR Strategic aspects of the labour market and Managing organisational performance Essay The economic events occurring during the last two decades provide indications and evidences that the area of human resourcing has significantly changed in response to the emerging complexities of the discipline. Perhaps, among the primary components of corporate organization, the dynamics of human resourcing appear to be the most challenging as well as complex. Experts in the area of Human Resource Management (HRM) invariably agree that the surging demand for a new organizational role for the human capital. Even the usually common terminologies used to describe the HRM processes, such as labor contracting, training and development, performance evaluation, have been recycled to outsourcing, learning and growth or performance management systems. Many even replaced, such as personnel to human resource to human capital, to describe in more sophisticated way, the new character of human resourcing. Still, HRM practitioners are of the opinion that changes will continue to pervade the HR area and may soon take or evolve into new competencies again. Torrington’s Views: The HRM discipline and the Labour market Torrington presents the burgeoning labour issues confronting many organizations as propounded by theorists and practitioners. Indeed, the complexities of human resourcing are invariably revealed in the documented HR practices compiled by the author, who has been keenly observing that the area of human resource management is beginning to undergo a form of transformative process where the task s, positions and the organization virtually mutates into its more sophisticated form. Based on data provided by the author and taken from a report, there is a general shortage of workers especially the young sector. In the area of healthcare, the National Health Service (NHS) is spending ? 1bn annually on temporary, agency and locum staff. According to Laing and Buisson, well known heathcare analysts, the demand for agency staff is expected to increase across public and private healthcare sector in response to the long-standing manpower shortages in practically every healthcare occupation. The author adds that the size of the market for manpower has risen by more than four times during the two decades commencing from 1992. Even the NHS had to triple their budget expenditures during the same period. Torrington estimates this sector is worth ? 2. 4bn in the market. However, the core of the problem has shifted to the quality of care that many temporary staff provide, thus the decision to reduce manpower outsourcing, Here, the need to get better deals from agencies is becoming paramount as new alternatives of human resourcing in this sector is being addressed. The author concludes by proposing an appropriate response system through flexible staffing solutions. Torrington highlights the strategic aspects of resourcing to respond effectively to the critical messages demanded and manifested by the labor market trends. Here, he analyzes the need to adopt certain flexible resourcing choices that will focus attention either to the ready-made or home grown human capital. The labor market trends bespeak of the dilemma faced by the human resourcing industry in general. A number of recommendations are provided to address this set of HR issues – the retention strategy. The retention indicators point to a disturbing trend at the charts. The issue of retention and its corresponding techniques and strategies has been brought into the open as a result of the need to assuage the cost of transfers, job and even career shifts. The author brings the issue of turnover rates and trends as indicative of HR instability in many sectors while exacting some forms of costs on the organization as a result of new rounds of resourcing and the need to adopt staff retention strategies. Torrington insists that organization strategies versus HR strategy issues not only should be HR-driven but primarily must mutually provide a perfect fit. The author discloses the strategic aspects of performance how these are driven by HR policies and processes as practiced. This is implied to mean that a change in perspective be made in the human resourcing function: from taking control of the employment processes to a more significant HR function of managing performance. True enough, this shift in focus may have been long wanted to smoothen human capital transitions to work excellence. This further suggests that efforts are better spent on ensuring that performance management becomes the primary driver of the HR function. A number of firms have found better insights into this form of HR shift considering that the new HR performance processes adds relevance and more meaningful roles for HR theorists and practitioners rather than just the documentary and aspect legalese of human resourcing. The author proposes the adoption of a performance management system that translates into organizational performance anchored on the knowledge and learning processes as HR initiatives. Here, the proactive roles expected of the HR practitioners are deemed directed towards gradually converting the company into a learning organization where the human capital competencies are planned, managed and nurtured. Performance management system indeed is a critical need as with the 360 degree feedback system. Conclusion Torrington proposes a two-dimensional performance appraisal system based on individual and team perspectives. He emphasizes management of employee performance guided towards organizational and personal goals and objectives and an objective appraisal system to measure extent of accomplishment based on target setting. A sequential and step-by-step approach is propounded with a component critique system based on an overarching 260 degree feedback system. A comparison and contrasting view of performance management system (PMS) and its environment of procedures indicate that the PMS has and is being widely used in organizations out to harness the potentials of its people. The degree of effectiveness indicates the variability of conceptualization and implementation, but nonetheless removes the major irritants in people management that ultimately affect the relationship as well as the performance dimensions of each of the component of the human capital sponsored primarily by senior management. Thus, the proactive nature of the PMS approach entitles it to wider adoption and desirability among organizations aiming to address many of its human resourcing issues. Subject 2 Performance Management System: Linking Organizational Goals Torrington outlines the essential factors in managing organisational performance showing how a Performance Management System (PMS)links to organisational goals. Concrete and abstract benefits and disincentives are identified and benchmarked with industry practices guided by the universal principles and theories of performance management. As practiced, performance management systems commence from the goal and target setting based on the requirements of the job. Here, employees and workers are clarified in the objectives of their positions, the requisite competence, and the learning and growth perspectives if the job as well as the compensation based on how the organization assesses the relative important of the task. The use of the PMS has been tested widely and has proven to be more effective than the traditional evaluation system. This is because of the inclusion of a compendium of measures that ensures that organizational goals are aligned with the specific tasks assigned to the employee. From the targets, agreements on the degree and how these targets are achieved under quality processes are laid down and the PMS target setting contract is accomplished. Thus, the use of the PMS allows the following benefits to accrued to both the worker and the organization: among others, expectations are clear and scope and limitations of the jobs are understood by both sectors; employees can clearly predict and manage their own levels of performance based on targets as well as the needed support to accomplish the tasks; there is an objective system of evaluation and appraisal that removes subjectivity and abstract judgments; when provided with an incentive and reward systems, PMS becomes effective as a tool and basis of rewards and incentives; and, there is a better working relationship between the worker and his superior based on earlier agreements and covenants. Likewise, PMS considers possible constraints and limitations on both sides, thus alternative measures are agreed for the degree of performance resulting from the occurrences of such constraints and impediments. For the organization, the benefits are clear in terms of stronger motivation on the worker; budgeting can be integrated into the system through measurable and appropriate inventive and rewards system; the subsequent appraisal and evaluation system allows for an ideal atmosphere for the discussion of the evaluation and appraisal results to encourage future performance based on areas that additionally needed reinforcement and support. In addition, PMS encourages both individuals and teams to be evaluated based on targets that are aligned with the organizational goals. On the other hand, the disadvantages of adopting a Performance Management System (PMS) includes the requirement for a more detailed procedures and measurement system that may prove to be too elaborate and complex for the worker to understand and appreciate. Likewise, the process of documentation in support of the performance is considered difficult and tedious. Further there is no assurance that performance can indeed by achieved as there may be unforeseen circumstances not considered during the target setting completed before the start of the performance period. (Noe, Hollenbeck, Gerhart, Wright, 2008) Nonetheless, there is a need to study the organizational culture on whether the latter would help the system or otherwise. Conclusion Taking into account the benefits and disadvantages of Performance Management Systems (PMS), the absence of a more measurable, objective and comprehensive system of measuring and evaluating performance is non-existence despite the presence and utilization of good measuring tools and instruments. This is the complexity of the new HResourcing strategy that allows greater flexibility and uniqueness in the approach to managing performance. On the overall, the rationale for adopting PMS far outweighs the need to ignore the benefits provided by this new system. Often, the major constraint in adopting PMS is whether the organizational culture would allow such a change in the system. Thus, the efforts may indeed be tedious, but nonetheless, there is strong desirability in the system that will be more advantageous to every stakeholder in the PMS environment system.

The Color Purple Essay -- essays research papers

The Color Purple by Alice Walker is a very controversial novel, which many people found to be very offensive. It is basically the struggle for one woman’s independence. The main character in The Color Purple is Celie a coloured woman with little or no education at all. She is one who has been used and abused by all the men in her life, and because of these men, she has very little courage or ambition in her life. She has so little courage, that all she wants to do is just survive. Through the various women she meets throughout here life like: Shug, her sister, and Harpo’s wife, she learns how to enjoy herself, gain courage and happiness. She finally learns enough and with the final straw she could no longer bare, she leaves her husband and becomes an independent happy woman. Celie was an abused woman from all the men in her life. She was abused and raped by her stepfather and then by her own husband. This abusiveness took away all of Celie’s ambitions and drove her into a state of fear. That is why she refers to these men only known as Mister, for she had lost her feelings. She feared them so much that she would always do whatever she was told without hesitation, because she was fearful of being beaten. The first evidence comes from the opening line of the novel, You better not never tell nobody but God†¦ (P.11). That is why all her letters open with Dear God, because she fears what will happen to her if she does tell anyone. And it is because of these men, that she has ver...

Iso 9000, Service Quality and Ergonomics Stanislav Karapetrovic

To cite this document: Stanislav Karapetrovic, (1999),†ISO 9000, service quality and ergonomics†, Managing Service Quality, Vol. 9 Iss: 2 pp. 81 – 89 Permanent link to this document: http://dx. doi. org/10. 1108/09604529910257948 Downloaded on: 17-10-2012 References: This document contains references to 27 other documents Citations: This document has been cited by 3 other documents To copy this document: [email  protected] com This document has been downloaded 1952 times since 2005. * Users who downloaded this Article also downloaded: *Rujirutana Mandhachitara, Yaowalak Poolthong, (2011),†A model of customer loyalty and corporate social responsibility†, Journal of Services Marketing, Vol. 25 Iss: 2 pp. 122 – 133 http://dx. doi. org/10. 1108/08876041111119840 Harold W. Webb, Linda A. Webb, (2004),†SiteQual: an integrated measure of Web site quality†, Journal of Enterprise Information Management, Vol. 17 Iss: 6 pp. 430 – 440 ht tp://dx. doi. org/10. 1108/17410390410566724 Rabiul Ahasan, Daniel Imbeau, (2003),†Who belongs to ergonomics? An examination of the human factors community†, Work Study, Vol. 52 Iss: 3 pp. 123 – 128 http://dx. doi. org/10. 1108/00438020310471917Access to this document was granted through an Emerald subscription provided by ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY OF GAZA For Authors: If you would like to write for this, or any other Emerald publication, then please use our Emerald for Authors service. Information about how to choose which publication to write for and submission guidelines are available for all. Please visit www. emeraldinsight. com/authors for more information. About Emerald www. emeraldinsight. com With over forty years' experience, Emerald Group Publishing is a leading independent publisher of global research with impact in business, society, public policy and education.In total, Emerald publishes over 275 journals and more than 130 book series, as well as an extensi ve range of online products and services. Emerald is both COUNTER 3 and TRANSFER compliant. The organization is a partner of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and also works with Portico and the LOCKSS initiative for digital archive preservation. *Related content and download information correct at time of download. Perspectives ISO 9000, service quality and ergonomics Stanislav Karapetrovic 1. Introduction In the last decade or so, we have witnessed an explosion of quality-related standards and regulations.As a result of the continuous quest for better â€Å"quality† of products and services offered to customers, the International Organization for Standardization introduced the ISO 9000 series of quality management and quality assurance standards in 1987. The series currently includes three models for quality assurance (ISO 9001, ISO 9002 and ISO 9003), guidelines for quality management (ISO 9004), and two supporting documents: ISO 9000 Guidelines for Model’s Selection and Use and ISO 8402 Quality Vocabulary (Figure 1). The ISO 9000 standards have been accepted worldwide, with more than 200,000 organizations already registered.The standards present a sound basis for assuring the customer of quality of products and services, as well as the processes that create them. Several other quality-related standards have since emerged, such as the automotive standards QS 9000, environmental management standards ISO 14000, and emerging health and safety international standards (Figura, 1996). The upcoming revision of ISO 9000 standards in the year 2000 (now in the form of a Technical Committee Draft) is expected to further facilitate the use of quality assurance methods the world over.Another commonly used phrase from the 1980s and 1990s has been total quality management (TQM): an integrated approach to the management of quality with special emphasis on delighting customers and improving the wellbeing of all employees in the organization. A number of articles have been written on the relationship between the ISO 9000 series and TQM (Johnson, 1993; Struebing, 1996; Wilson, 1996; Velury, 1996; Corigan, 1994; Sakofsky, 1994; Emmons, 1994), underlying the opinion of quality management professionals that the two are not quite the same.While ISO 9000 series are technical, presenting speci?cations, requirements and guidelines for quality systems, TQM emphasizes teamwork and customer satisfaction. Put another way, TQM is quality management with â€Å"a human touch†. Does this mean that ergonomic aspects of the workplace and customer satisfaction are not emphasized by ISO 9000? Does quality assurance (ISO 9000) emphasize ergonomics and 81 The author Stanislav Karapetrovic is based at the Department of Industrial Engineering, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.Keywords Ergonomics, ISO 9000, Quality assurance, Service quality, Workers Abstract This paper addresses some ergonomic issues in the ISO 9000-based qualit y assurance. Ergonomics – the study of human factors in engineering and design of systems is brie?y touched on. Then, outlines of ISO 9001 and ISO 9004 quality system models are provided, and all 20 requirements of the current ISO 9001:9004 standard are presented in an ergonomic light. Subsequently, human factors in the documentation and implementation of a quality system are illustrated.The relevance of ergonomic studies in the development of service systems is addressed. Finally, a blueprint for an ergonomic assurance system, de?ned as a set of interrelated resources and processes that function in order to achieve objectives related to ergonomic design and use of products and processes, is provided. Managing Service Quality Volume 9  · Number 2  · 1999  · pp. 81–89  © MCB University Press  · 0960-4529 Figure 1 Ergonomics – an essential element of the production and/or service systemRaw Material RESOURCES Ergonomics PROCESS PRODUCT Output Input Ergono mics COST ERGONOMICAL CHARACTERISTICS QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS occupational health and safety? In the present time of globalization of markets and internationalization of best-practice standards, such questions can and should be posed. This paper addresses some of the ergonomic issues in the ISO 9000-based quality assurance. Ergonomics, that is the study of human factors in engineering and design of systems, is brie?y touched on.Then, outlines of ISO 9001 and ISO 9004 quality system models are provided, and all 20 requirements of the current ISO 9001:9004 standard are presented in an ergonomic light. Subsequently, human factors in the documentation and implementation of a quality system are illustrated. The relevance of ergonomic studies in the development of service systems is addressed. Finally, the design of an ergonomic assurance system based on ISO 9000 is discussed. 2. Ergonomics It seems that it takes a disaster, loss of human life, or a health crisis for most of us to realize how important human factors are.Before the Three Mile Island incident, the Chernobil explosion, the Bhopal pesticide leak, plane crashes involving human errors, or ?ndings that millions of people suffer from repetitive stress injuries, it would have been hard to ?nd anyone who knew what ergonomics or human factors engineering are (not including the ergonomists themselves, of course). Today, however, we often hear about â€Å"ergonomicallydesigned computer mouse and keyboard†, 82 â€Å"ergonomic† chairs, pots, pans, door handles, and automatic teller machines (ATM).We now know that ergonomic design of products and processes is bsolutely crucial for effective and ef?cient work. Ergonomics, or human factors engineering, deals with the design for human use, as well as optimizing working and living conditions (Sanders and McCormick, 1993). The ?rst term (ergonomics) is mainly in use in Europe, while the second (human factors engineering) is often heard in North America. Th e following de?nition, modi?ed from Chapanis (1985), is provided: Ergonomics discovers and applies information about human behavior, limitations, abilities and other human characteristics to the design of systems for ef?cient, safe, comfortable and effective human use.Interested readers are referred to a classic in ergonomics, Sanders’ and McCormick’s â€Å"Human factors in engineering and design† (1993), for more information on the history of the science and a detailed study of many applications of ergonomics. Ergonomics, almost by default, is implied in quality assurance. Quality assurance encompasses techniques used to provide con?dence to customers that their requirements for quality are met. Therefore, by de?nition, human factors are involved. Assurances in the quality of products and services are provided to humans, by humans.In fact, ergonomics and quality assurance are so intertwined that it is impossible to say where one starts and the other ends. Sever al articles in ergonomics literature have already discussed the use of quality assurance techniques in human factors engineering (for instance, see Helander and Burri, 1995; Bergquist and Abeysekera, 1996). For an early account on human factors in quality assurance, the reader is referred to Harris and Chaney (1969). Hence, in the following sections, interrelationships between ergonomics and quality assurance will be addressed. 3.Quality Assurance (ISO 9001) and Management (ISO 9004) Of the three available models for quality system registration, ISO 9001 is undoubtedly the most comprehensive and most widely used. The current version (ISO 9001: 1994), includes 20 elements (requirements), to which a quality assurance system of an organization is assessed (Table I). ISO 9001 covers design, development, production, installation and servicing activities. It is aimed at providing con?dence to internal and external customers that their requirements for quality are continuously met.An organ ization’s anagement is the main internal customer, while external customers include consumers of the organization’s products and services, as well as registrars that assess the suitability and effectiveness of the quality system. ISO 9001 is a generic standard, which means that it is universally applicable to both manufacturing and service organizations, i. e. small businesses (Karapetrovic et al. , 1997), health care and education (Willborn and Cheng, 1994). Rather than focusing on speci?c products and services, ISO 9001 addresses quality systems and processes in?uencing the product throughout its lifecycle.A quality system can be de?ned as a set of processes that function harmoniously, using various resources, to achieve quality objectives (Karapetrovic and Willborn, 1998A). It is in the interaction of human, material and information resources, as well as human resources and processes, that the ergonomic aspects of the quality system emerge. Focusing on the underlyin g concept of a system will help us understand the interrelationships between the quality and ergonomic system, and provide a possibility for integration.Apart from ISO 9001, a set of guidelines numbered ISO 9004 is widely used for developing and implementing quality 83 management. The set currently consists of eight documents, ranging from the guidelines on quality management in service organizations to con?guration and project management. For the purpose of discussing an ergonomic system in services, we turn our attention to the second document in the series, namely the ISO 9004-2 (1994) â€Å"Quality management and quality system elements: Guidelines for services†).In essence very similar in scope and structure to ISO 9001, ISO 9004-2 provides guidelines for establishing quality management throughout the service life cycle, starting from establishing the need for a service, through service design, acquisition of resources, service delivery and status, as well as performance analysis and improvement. Differing from ISO 9001, these guidelines directly address interfaces with customers, including â€Å"creating a perception of the appropriate image based on the reality of actions taken to meet customers needs† (ISO 9004-2: 1994).Effective communication with customers, â€Å"listening to them and keeping them informed†, is particularly emphasized. What is also important from an ergonomic standpoint is that the guidelines provide the basis for adequate training of personnel, including motivation, staff development and communication. Although the training mentioned therein mostly involves â€Å"quality system training†, it could be expanded to environmental, health and safety, and ergonomic system training.For different strategies of using the quality system framework for developing other management systems, including environment and ergonomics, the reader is referred to Karapetrovic and Willborn (1998B and 1998C). In addition to ISO 90 04-2, another standard from the ISO 9004 series, namely ISO 9004: Part 1 â€Å"Guidelines for quality management and quality system elements†, addresses some particular ergonomic aspects. This is done in the standard’s 19th element: Product safety. Speci?cally, it is suggested that â€Å"consideration be given to identifying safety aspects of products and processes with the aim of enhancing safety† (ISO 9004-1: 1994).Steps to achieve this can include: †¢ identifying relevant safety standards; †¢ performing design evaluation tests for safety; †¢ analyzing instructions and warnings to the user; Table I Ergonomic issues and implications of ISO 9001 (1994) ISO 9001 element 4. 1 4. 2 4. 3 Management responsibility Quality system Contract review Ergonomic issues Organization ensures that the quality policy is understood at all levels Procedures and work instructions are effectively documented/implemented Customer requirements are adequately de?ned and d ocumentedImplications Quality system documentation should be designed and implemented using ergonomic (human factors engineering) knowledge Ergonomic characteristics of a product, such as environmental conditions, sensory characteristics proper handling and packaging should be determined (see Bergquist and Abeysekera, 1996; Helander and Burri, 1995; Barsky and Dutta, 1997) Products should be ergonomically designed to ensure healthy and safe functioning Quality system documents should be accessible . 4 4. 5 Design control Document control 4. 6 4. 7 4. 8 4. 9 Purchasing Control of customer supplied product Product identi?cation and traceability Process control 4. 10 Inspection and testing 4. 11 Inspection and test equipment 4. 12 Inspection and test status 4. 13 Nonconforming product 4. 14 Corrective and preventive action 4. 15 Handling, storage, †¦, delivery 4. 16 Control of quality records 4. 17 Internal quality audits 4. 18 Training 4. 19 ServicingCrucial characteristics for s afe and proper functioning of the product are identi?ed Appropriate documents are readily available at all locations where essential operations are performed Purchasing documents adequately address speci?ed requirements Adequate procedures for storage and maintenance of the product are in place Product is adequately identi?ed and traceable Suitable equipment and working environment are used Criteria for workmanship is stipulated in the clearest practical manner Records clearly illustrate the results of inspection and testing activities Suitable indicators of calibration status are identi?ed Inspection and test status of the product is identi?ed by suitable means Nonconforming products are adequately identi?ed and segregated Appropriate sources of information are used to detect and eliminate potential/ existing causes of defects Adequate handling, storage, packaging, preservation and delivery of the product is identi?ed and maintained Quality records are adequately identi?ed, indexed , ?led and storedQuality records are easily accessible Quality audits are performed to examine the suitability and effectiveness of the quality system Training needs are identi?ed and adequate training provided Appropriate identi?cation of servicing needs and customer feedback is performed Ergonomic techniques can be used to ensure clear understanding of documents Safe and risk-free storage and maintenance of products is emphasized Identi?cation of products should be performed according to ergonomic guidelines regulations For identi?cation and maintenance of the suitable working environment and hardware, ergonomic analysis and evaluations must be performed Identi?cation of products and equipment should be performed according to ergonomic guidelines and regulations (for example, see Sanders and McCormick, 1993 (part 2), and Harris and Chaney, 1070 (chapters 6-11)Ergonomical analysis of human-information interaction is helpful (for instance, see Sanders and McCormick, 1993 (part 2) Er gonomical design and analysis of handling and packaging of products should be used Ergonomic techniques can be used to ensure clear understanding of documents, and accessibility of records Ergonomic audits/evaluations, identifying areas for possible improvement of human-machineproduct-environment interactions are performed Ergonomic training should be emphasized Ergonomic characteristics of a product, such as environmental conditions, sensory characteristics proper handling and packaging should be determined (see Bergquist and Abeysekera, 1996; Helander and Burri, 1995; Barsky and Dutta, 1997)Statistical tools and techniques are used in ergonomic analysis and evaluations 4. 20 Statistical techniques The need for the application of statistical techniques is identi?ed 84 †¢ developing a means of product traceability to facilitate product recall; †¢ considering development of an emergency plan The following section will address some ergonomic factors in the ISO 9001/9004 qual ity system structure, as well as suggest implementation of this system with ergonomics in mind. 4. Ergonomic considerations of ISO 9001/9004 Quality systems depicted in ISO 9001 and ISO 9004 standards apply to all phases in the life cycle of a service, from initial identi?cation to ?nal satisfaction of customer requirements.The concept of all activities in?uencing the quality of a service throughout its life cycle is often referred to as the â€Å"service quality loop† (ISO 9004-2, 1994). Thus, a service quality system involves three main elements: (1) service; (2) processes along the quality loop; and (3) resources. Likewise, ergonomic considerations within a service quality system include: †¢ Ergonomic design and delivery of service (and/or related products). †¢ Ergonomic design and application of processes. †¢ Analysis of the interaction between human and information/material resources Using Figure 1, it is possible to explain how quality and ergonomics inte rrelate in a quality system. Each product or service made possesses certain characteristics.For example, service quality is a set of characteristics that bear on the service’s ability to satisfy customer requirements. Ergonomic characteristics of products / services provide safe, healthy and ef?cient usage and/or delivery. It is evident that some ergonomic characteristics of a product (or service) are essentially quality characteristics (such as the design of the driver’s seat in a car), and vice-versa. Also, service delivery processes have to satisfy certain requirements that may be ergonomic in nature. For example, the environment in which retail-banking services operate may be altered to provide safety for a bank teller working in it. Finally, ergonomic issues emerge when human, material and informa85 ion resources are combined to create a quality system.The current ISO 9001 quality system has a multitude of elements that are directly applicable to managing ergonomi cs and health/safety. Table I lists all 20 elements of ISO 9001 in the order in which they appear in the standard, illustrates sections and speci?c requirements which pertain to ergonomics, and provides ergonomic implications of the quality system. The implications range from adequate identi?cation of customer ergonomic requirements, ergonomically suitable design of products, services and processes, to identi?cation and maintenance of appropriate working environment and equipment.Such analysis of the ISO 9001 quality system shows that virtually every element of the system includes at least some ergonomic and/or health and safety aspects. This conclusion, however, is not surprising, since ultimately, quality is created by people, and for people. Not only does the content of ISO 9001 relate to human factors (Hansen, 1996), but also its context. A quality system must be adequately documented and implemented in order to operate effectively and ef?ciently. Quality documentation, as a pil lar of the quality system, must be understood and readily available to all persons whose work affects quality, as well as understood by all involved. Ergonomically designed documentation will undoubtedly help people understand their tasks better and improve their performance.New technologies, such as head-up-displays (Geiselman and Osgood, 1995; Karapetrovic, 1995), computer-aided communication (through electronic mail and the Internet) can greatly improve the implementation of a quality system in any organization. Examples include: †¢ Operators using HUDs for display of quality procedures and work instructions. †¢ Paperless ISO 9000 documentation, i. e. documents available on-line using HTML or Java (Clarkin and Dow, 1997). †¢ Wireless electronic mail for reporting and analysis of quality-related problems. The following section addresses the implementation of human factors engineering in services, using ?nancial services as an example, in more detail. 5. Ergonomics a nd services How do ergonomics relate to service quality systems?To answer that question, we can follow the above-mentioned â€Å"service quality loop† from the inception of the need for service, to the evaluation of whether that need has been satis?ed. In designing a â€Å"quality service†, we must ?rst identify the need for it, as well as ?nd out who would actually need such a service. Put another way, we are de?ning the user and his/her needs. For instance, say we want to open a bank branch in a specific location. Do local bank users really need a branch there? What exactly do they need? Perhaps they need investment services, or easy access to cash, or mortgage consultations. Sanders and McCormick (1993) and Bailey (1982) de?ne the identi?cation of user needs through observation, interviews and questionnaires as ergonomic activities that apply here.Psychology-based tools of ergonomics deal in particular with an effective and ef?cient determination of user needs. The service system is subsequently designed on the basis of identi?ed needs. We have determined that local users require access to money from their accounts as well as the possibility of discussing investments. Now, we need to allocate resources to required banking functions. These resources include people (bank employees), hardware (automatic teller machines (ATM), computers) and software. Which particular functions should we assign to people, and which to machines? For instance, for easy access to cash, we would assume that a 24hour ATM would be appropriate.However, what if most of the bank’s clients are seniors, who are still not accustomed to trusting machines in dealing with deposits or withdrawals, or if the bank is located in a place where people prefer customer service and contact with bank tellers rather than machines? Ergonomic studies help us in determining speci?c capabilities of people, hardware and software, and can provide signi?cant assistance in allocating system functions. Then, we can decide whether to completely automate certain functions, or to assign people to perform them, or use both machines and people. For example, a bank may decide to allow withdrawals of less than $1,000 from an ATM. If a customer wants to withdraw more than that, he/she would have to go to a bank teller. 86Once we have decided which resources the bank should have (say three ATMs, four tellers and two investment advisors), we need to perform an analysis of the required processes, activities and tasks. Put another way, we are listing the sequence of activities that need to be conducted in order to accomplish a speci?c function. Flowcharts are particularly helpful here. For instance, we can specify a procedure for cash withdrawals from the bank. This, in ergonomics, is called task description and analysis (Sanders and McCormick, 1993). Whenever we have some interaction between people and hardware or software, such as when a teller needs to input withdrawal informat ion into the database, there are ergonomic implications.For example, in the bank where I normally do my ?nancial transactions, computer monitors and keyboards are placed so low in relation to the counter, that the teller needs to bend down every time he/she inputs the information, virtually disappearing behind the counter. Just imagine how many times the teller needs to bend like that every day, every week, every month. Put another way, in designing the work space for employees, e. g. placing customer service counters and computers in determined locations, allocating space for safety deposit boxes, etc. , we inevitably in?uence the comfort, safety and ef?ciency of people working in such spaces. All these are ergonomic considerations that can in?uence the quality of the product or service.The likely reason why tellers in my bank still have to bend down to reach the computer is that it was probably never de?ned as a problem at all. The existence of an ergonomic program within the bank , with planned ergonomic audits and corrective actions, would certainly identify and rectify such a problem. But how can such a program be introduced with minimum cost and maximum bene?ts? Perhaps the solution is in the integration of the existing quality system with an ergonomic program. The integration of quality and environment management systems came naturally, since standards representing best practices were effectively established at the international level (namely ISO 9000 and ISO 14000).This should also be the case with occupational health and safety (OHS), since national and international OHS standards, dubbed ISO 20000 (Figura, 1996) are already emerging. The following section presents an approach to the development of an ergonomic assurance system on the basis of the quality system. 6. Ergonomics assurance system As was mentioned in Section 3 of this paper, the systems concept can greatly assist us in understanding the interrelationships of many production and management processes, among others, quality and ergonomics. For an excellent account of the relationship between ergonomics and the system design, the interested reader can refer to Sanders and McCormick (1993), Chapter 22. While the pplication of the systems concept to service quality is presented elsewhere (Karapetrovic and Willborn, 1998A), it can be used to propose an ergonomic assurance system. We can de?ne ergonomic assurance as â€Å"all those planned and systematic actions aimed at providing con?dence to customers, management and the general public, that their requirements and needs for ergonomically safe products and processes are met†.An ergonomic assurance system is then a â€Å"set of processes and resources that function harmoniously to achieve objectives related to ergonomic design and implementation of products and processes†.Note: Proposed EAS elements are given in bold letters, while numbers represent sections of the ISO 9004-2 Guidelines 87 Similarly to the ISO 14001:1996 environmental management system, an ergonomic assurance system can include Deming’s plan-dostudy-act (PDSA) continuous improvement circle, with the following elements: †¢ Ergonomic objectives. †¢ Planning and design (ergonomic aspects, targets, determination of system performance speci?cations, ergonomic system design). †¢ Resource acquisition and deployment (allocation of functions to people, hardware and software; task analysis, design of jobs and human-hardware-software interfaces; training). †¢ Operation (ergonomic control, monitoring and measurement).†¢ Corrective/preventive action (ergonomic audits). Improvement (ergonomic evaluations, communication with interested parties. Interested parties may include customers, for ergonomic characteristics of the product/service, and employees, for ergonomics of the workplace). Rather than adding speci?c ergonomic and safety requirements to existing quality standards (Barsky and Dutta (1997) sugg est this), a separate ergonomic system standard can be drafted, and then integrated with existing quality management systems. Using the de?nition and the model of a quality system from Karapetrovic and Willborn (1998C), proposed elements of the ergonomic management system (EMS) can be illustrated as in Figure 2.For example, the executive management of an organization should de?ne an ergonomic policy that is documented and communicated to all employees. Ergonomic aspects of all activities and processes within the organization should be identi?ed and speci?c objectives and targets set. An ergonomic management program should be de?ned and documented, and adequate resources allocated. Operation of the EMS should include a statement of responsibility and authority of people involved, identi?cation of training needs and a provision of adequate ergonomic training, and preparation of adequate EMS documentation. Corrective and preventive action to eliminate existing and potential problems sh ould be undertaken, and ergonomic audits would assist in this effort.Finally, the executive management should review the status of the EMS, includ88 ing its effectiveness, suitability, and conformance to the requirements. 7. Conclusion This paper addressed some of the ergonomic issues in the ISO 9000-based quality assurance for services. Outlines of ISO 9001 and ISO 9004 quality system models were provided, followed by a discussion of the content of the ISO 9001 standard considering ergonomics and human factors. Ergonomic implementation of a quality system was subsequently addressed. Finally, possible development of an â€Å"ergonomic assurance system† on the basis of ISO 9001 and systems theory was presented. Further research into the development of ergonomic assurance systems is suggested.

Feminism Social Work - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 19 Words: 5671 Downloads: 1 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category People Essay Type Argumentative essay Tags: Gender Roles Essay Social Work Essay Did you like this example? The emergence of feminism and its impact on social work practice This research considers the application of feminist thought in social work practise. Specific areas of consideration include the gap from social workers personal acceptance of feminist constructs and their use of such constructs in daily practise, the effects of perpetuation of hegemonic gender roles by social workers, and domestic violence victims perceptions of the effectiveness of social work based on the perspectives of their social workers as considered above. This research further describes a focus group of college social work students who are also domestic violence victims.. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Feminism Social Work" essay for you Create order It records their perceptions of social workers worldviews and the impact of such on service. Conclusions include that there is significant gap between the understanding or acceptance of feminist constructs amongst social workers and its application in daily field practise, that social workers are often likely to perpetuate hegemonic gender roles, and because of such perpetuation view domestic violence situations as individual occurrences rather than part of a greater societal pattern of oppression, and that domestic violence survivors feel best served when work with them uses a feminist theoretical framework. Introduction Feminism and social work have been associated for many years; however, although many social workers personally espouse working from a feminist perspective, the systems of social work still favour work from a traditional or patriarchal perspective. This research, therefore, seeks to first consider findings from previous study regarding this phenomenon and the theoretical frameworks for both social work and feminist thought. In this light of information gleaned from these findings, it became apparent that hegemonic gender roles, a common topic of feminist research, play a relevant part in work with survivors of domestic violence. Specifically, domestic violence survivors are often directed, either explicitly or implicitly, that their situation is personal and should be considered and dealt with from a personal and pathological perspective rather than applying the tenets of feminist thought that view such situations as manifestations of structural and power problems in our greater society. This study then seeks to document whether this gap between social work theory supportive of feminist worldviews and social work application of practise exists, and if so, how prevalent a gap it is. This is accomplished through use of a focus group of college students, all of whom have taken at least one course in social work theory and are themselves domestic violence survivors who have been served, to whatever level of quality, by social workers. Discussions within the focus group involved ideas of gender roles and social worker advocacy of hegemonic gender roles, whether explicit or implicit. The focus group then built on this foundation to consider group participants experiences with social workers and whether they presented an individual / pathological perspective of domestic violence, or whether they presented a perspective that consider the wider influence of society and its systems. This was further related to the effect of such perceptions on the understanding of and service to group participants at the time of intervention. Literature Review Feminism has emerged in the past thirty years as a viable worldview. Dietz (2000), quoting Bunch (1980), defined feminism as transformational politics that aims at the dismantling of all permanent power hierarchies in which one category of humans dominates or controls another category of humans (372). In the feminist and empowerment traditions, the personal is political, and individual change and social change are seen as interdependent (Deitz 2000,372). Feminism contends it is not adequate to simply include women in the worlds political and power systems, as these were designed by and for men and therefore favour a highly masculinised mechanism for responding to issues and require women working within these systems to-do the same (Scott 1988, Moylan 2003). Simply including women is not enough; society must give womens experiences equal time and consideration, eventually recasting the very meanings of the topics it considers (Scott 1988). Rather, feminism argues women must be engaged in both the system development and decision-making processes that shape our society (Moylan 2003). Consequently, one area where feminism has particularly challenged traditional views is in the area of gender roles. For example, Dominelli and McLeod (1989) examine the way in which social problems are defined, recognising gender as particularly important in understanding client groups, and stress egalitarian relationships between therapists and clients. Gender is also an important consideration of social work due to the patriarchal society that still dominates most of our world. This power framework rests on a basis of hegemonic masculinity (Cohn and Enloe 2003). Connell (1995) created the term hegemonic masculinity to describe the valued definition of manhood in a society. He argues that whilst there are multiple possible masculinities in a culture, only one or a few are most valued or considered ideal (Connell 1995). This gender definition is constructed both in relation to femininity and to other, subordinated masculinities, and is used to justify both mens domination of women, and the hegemonic ally masculine mans power over other men (Cohn and Weber 1999). Whilst women are increasingly being included in world systems, the systems themselves still were designed for and operate by and for men. Therefore, women who participate within the system must do so from male paradigm, even if it is sometimes at odds with their own preferences for how to go about dealing with a situation (Cohn and Enloe 2003). Feminism historically is a critique of male supremacy, the belief that gender order was socially constructed and could not be changed (Cott1989,205). Masculinity is often defined as what is not feminine, and femininity as what is not masculine, although understanding the dynamics of one requires considering both the workings of the other and the relationship and overlap between the two (Cohn and Enloe 2003). Masculine definitions are often based on strength, domination and violence, whilst feminine on weakness, nurturing, compassion and passitivity (Rabrenovic and Roskos 2001). The result is pressure omen adhering to a hegemonic definition of masculinity to view forms of addressing conflict other than a physical or masculine response as feminine and a threat to their manhood (Moylan 2003). The popular concept of gender holds that masculinity and femininity are unchanging expressions based on the chromosomal male and female bodies (Butler 1990). Gender is assumed to be hard-wired, at least in part (Hawkesworth 1997). Masculine actions and desires for men and feminine actions and desires for women alone are normal, these masculine and feminine traits are not a matter of choice, and all individuals can be classified as one or the other (Hawkesworth 1997). However, whilst our society men are considered strong and dominant, and women passive and nurturing, the meanings of male and female bodies differ from one culture to another, and change (even in our own culture) over time (Connell 1993, 75). For example, there have been periods in Western history when the modern convention that men suppress displays of emotion did not apply at all, when men were effusive to their male friends and demonstrative about their feelings(Connell 1993, 75). Masculinities and felinities are constructed or accomplished in social processes such as child rearing, emotional and sexual relationships, work and politics (Connell 1993, 75). Feminism, however, contends gender is a constructed by each culture, and as a social practice involves the incorporation of specific symbols, which support or distort human potential (Hawkesworth 1997). Gender is created through discursively constrained per formative acts, and the repetition of these acts over time creates gender for the individual in society (Butler 1990, x). People learn to act like women or men are supposed to; women are taught to behave in a feminine manner, men are taught to act in a masculine manner. This is often reinforced by authority figures, such as social workers. Barnes (2003)cites a number of studies which find social workers often assume the disciplinary gaze of notions of what and how to be woman, perpetuating traditional gender roles (149). Armed with rigid codes of gender appropriate behaviours, social workers often sought to regulate and mediate womens interactions with the social, economic, and political world (Barns 2003, 149). Feminism and social work share a number of similarities. Both believe in the inherent worth and dignity of all persons, the value of process over product, the appreciation of unity-diversity, the importance of considering the person-in- environment, and a commitment to personal empowerment and active participation in society as a means to bring about meaningful social change (Barrette 2001, 266-267). Similarly, both feminism and social work address multiple approaches to handling situations, challenging the institutionalized oppression common in manpower structures and supporting the reconceptualization and redistribution of that power (Barrette 2001, 267). It follows that one impact of feminism on social work practise is the consideration of issues from a societal rather than personal perspective. For example, this might include viewing a domestic violence situation not from the perspective that the family is dysfunctional, but from the perspective of the society that created the family. The psychology-based focus of clinical social work often leads to individualizing social problems, rather than to viewing themes the result of relations of power, primarily oppression and abuse(Deitz 2000, 369). As such, individuals experiencing such difficulties are taught that their particular experiences are inappropriate, rather than addressing the systems that created the difficulties in the first place (Deitz 2000, 369). Nominally and McLeod (1989) re-evaluate social work practice from feminist perspective, considering the functions of social work such as therapy, community interaction, and policy making not from pathological standpoint but from one of defined roles endorsed by societal conditions. As such, they contend that working from feminist perspective allows the social worker to address the causes of social issues, rather than the symptoms played out in individuals lives (Nominally and McLeod 1989). One area of difference in social work practise between those operating from a feminist framework and a traditional framework is the concept of distance. Traditionally, the patriarchal bias against relationality and connection is intended to lead to connection without harm, love without power abuse, touching without sexual abuse in psychotherapy(Deitz 2000, 377). Unfortunately, in practise it often results in power over relationships where those receiving services feel less than those providing them. Healing happens when someone feels seen, heard, held, and empowered, not when one is interpreted, held at distance, and pathologies (Deitz 2000, 377). Deitz (2000) finds that social workers often institutionalize a power over stance from professional training and discourse that constructs the identities of clients as somehow disordered, dysfunctional or impaired. Whether between parents and children; physicians and patients; social workers and consumers of services; Whites and Blacks; or heterosexuals and lesbians, gays, bisexuals, and transgendered persons, power over relationships give the dominant partners or group the right to define the meanings of subordinates experiences (including their resistance)and thus their opportunities for self-affirmation (Deitz 2000,373).This creates professional relationships that ignore the environmental, historical, and social contexts of the problem, discount peoples strengths and resilience in assessment and intervention, and lead to the objectification of people as diagnoses, rather than to empowerment (Deitz 2000, 370). The keys to empowerment in feminist micro practice are reconnection and transformation through political activity; survivors of oppression and abuse experience reconnection through relationships based on mutuality, collaboration, and trustworthiness (Deitz 2000, 376). Theories from social work, psychology, and particularly developmental psychology describe empowerment as primarily a process, with the personal transformation of the individual becoming empowered at its foundation (Carr 2003, 8). Barriers to empowerment and problems of disenfranchisement caused by powerlessness are primarily political, rather than psychological. Powerlessness is defined as the inability to effectively manage ones emotions, knowledge, skills, or resources; it is derived from the absence of external supports and the existence of ontological power blocks that become incorporated into a persons development (Carr 2003, 13). As such, many survivors also work to reconnect to others in their communities, often seeking political activity that emphasizes the empowerment of others, such as by organizing Take Back the Night marches or speak-outs, volunteering for crisis hot lines, seeking legislative changes, or becoming social workers or human service professionals (Deitz 2000, 376). For example, feminist work with abuse survivors emphasizes the relationship between abuse and oppressive social relations (Deitz 2000,374). On the other hand, the dominant clinical social work approach to oppression and abuse relocates the problem of oppression in victims. Psychological theories are typically employed, which locates pathology in individuals, rather than in oppressive relationships and systems, and considers the long-term effects of oppression to be symptoms of individual pathology (Deitz 2000, 374). Unfortunately, whilst many social workers have been exposed to or even personally support operating from a feminist framework, the systems in which they work prevent them from actively utilising feminist insight in their daily practise. Research Plan This research seeks to study the prevalence and impact of traditional and feminist practitioner constructs from the perspective of those served. Specifically, a focus group study will be conducted with a group of college students, all of whom are currently studying social work and therefore have some concept regarding social work practice, feminist and traditional worldviews. In addition, all students in the focus group will have experienced domestic violence and have been provided the services of a social worker in some form during their teenage years. Three areas of discussion will be undertaken by the group. These will be provided to individual group participants in writing several days before the group in order for students to have time to consider what they would like to share regarding their opinions and own experiences. The first group activity will involve creating definitions of masculine and feminine from the perspective of a typical social worker based on the students teenage experiences. Students will then be asked to discuss where, if at all, they personally feel they and their family members who were involved in the domestic violence situation(s) fit regarding these preconceived definitions. It is anticipated some students will have been uncomfortable with societal constraints they or their family experienced as teenagers. As all are studying social work, they are also anticipated to make more connections between societal power issues, hegemonic gender roles, and their influence on domestic violence than a focus group without such background. The third area of discussion will centre on how the students perceptions of their social worker(s) understanding of gender roles influenced their and their families reception of adequate service. The researcher will both tape record and take notes on the group discussions. Data gathered from the group will then be compiled and analysed. In addition, students from the focus group will be given the option to write a response to the group activity, if they so desire. These will be further included in the group data. Methodology Data collection involved four means. Prior to the group starting, each participant was given a questionnaire (see Appendix 3) to gather basic demographic information. The questionnaire also asked for brief summary of their abusive situation. Regarding data collection of the group proceedings, as described above the focus group session was tape-recorded and the researcher took notes to supplement the recording of group discussion. The recorded sessions were then transcribed into print form, with research notes added in at the chronologically appropriate points of the transcription to provide a more complete written overview of the focus group discussion. In addition, group participants had an option to write a response the group to be included in the group data. Four participants wrote responses, which were considered with the group data following analysis of the focus group discussion. Participants were provided with the three areas of group discussion several days prior to the actual focus group meeting. They were not given any directions or guidance regarding the optional written responses to the group activity. Data analysis first involved dividing and coding group data. Responses to the first topic of discussion were divided into three categories: those representing a traditional worldview, those representing feminist worldview, and those that did not clearly represent either worldview. From these groupings, overall findings regarding the worldviews typically experienced by the group participants were summarised. This was then further compared with the definitions of traditional gender roles identified by the group. Data from the second topic of discussion were also broken down into those representing a traditional worldview, those representing feminist worldview, and those that did not clearly represent either worldview. It was important to then note participant perceptions and emotional responses to these coding, and in which worldview grouping they and their families were reported to feel best served and empowered. Data from the specific discussion regarding service were then similarly analysed, and combined with previous findings to present a picture of the impact of traditional versus feminist worldviews on social work practise, emphasising work with teenage domestic violence survivors and their understanding of gender roles in society. It was anticipated at the conclusion of such research, a view could be asserted as to whether feminist perspective has a significant impact on the practise of social work as it is currently undertaken and whether this impact, if any, leads to improved service. As the focus group involved a relatively small number of participants(nine total) and data from their interactions were primarily qualitative in nature, it was decided not to perform any complex statistical analysis on focus group data. It was felt that such types of analysis would neither reveal findings that could be considered statistically significant nor provide a more accurate understanding of the issues under consideration than a more qualitative analytical approach. In consideration of space and relevance portions of the discussion were used to support conclusions in the findings and analysis sections of this dissertation, whilst an overall summary of the most relevant portions of the discussion are included in Appendix2. Implementation Project Nine students meeting the criteria laid out in the research plan agreed to participate in the focus group. They were primarily organised by one group participant, who had discovered other domestic violence survivors through classroom discussions and through participation in a survivors group in the local community. All nine students were currently studying social work or had taken at least one social work course as part of a related course of study, such as education or criminal justice. There were six women and three men, ranging in age from nineteen to twenty-seven. Racially, seven were Caucasian, one was Black, and one was Asian. All present as coming from upper working class to middle class backgrounds. All had experienced domestic violence as teenagers, making their experiences fairly recent and therefore providing a relatively current depiction of social work practise. Five students (three women, two men) had been removed from their biological parents at some point during their teenage years. All had been involved in interventions into the family by a social worker representing either a government organisation, or in the case of one woman, a local church. Some of the participants previously knew each other and were somewhat aware of each others experiences, which should be considered in group analysis. Five regularly participated in a survivors support group in the community. One man and one woman were cousins. In addition, two of the men had known each other as teenagers from intervention through the school system. Jennifer, a twenty-four year-old Caucasian woman, was chosen to be the moderator, as she had been the one who had assisted the researcher by arranging for most of the participants to become involved in the study. The group then moved almost immediately into discussion of the topics provided. The group had been provided a whiteboard for its use, which Jennifer implemented to organise individual comments and ideas. It is surmised that the easy manner with which the group undertook the discussion was based on the fact that they were all students and therefore used to having study groups, group discussions, and the like, and that all of them had at least publicly shared their experiences previously, either as part of a classroom discussion or survivors group, or both, and were therefore more comfortable in engaging in such discussion than might be typical for a focus group dealing with such experiences. Findings and Analysis The first finding of this research is that the majority of social workers in service or domestic violence survivors to not consistently employ feminist constructs in practise, despite the likelihood of having been exposed to such constructs. This manifested itself in three significant ways. First, families were overwhelming dealt with as individuals with problems. That is, the abuser was described as making poor choices or having some type of pathological issues that led to his or her decision to abuse (in one participants family, both parents were abusive). As such, the abuser was described from psychoanalytical standpoint by the social worker(s), and his or her behaviour labelled as individually deviant. The survivors of the domestic violence situations, particularly them others, as the majority of abusers from the groups experiences were male family members or boyfriends of the mother, were also reported tube consistently dealt with from an individual perspective. In this sense, their behaviour was also reported to be categorised by the social workers involved as unhealthy, pathological, and coming from some sort of unresolved personal issues, such as low self-esteem. In the case of only one participant did the social workers involved in either intervention or therapy consistently relate the domestic violence situation to broader issues of oppression, societal power structures and the related hegemonic gender roles, or patriarchal norms of society. It is of note that this participant received service from progressive women-helping-women organisation, rather than a traditional government-organised social work programme. Group participants also repeatedly described their family situations as unhealthy, and they certainly were, but from the perspective that both the abuser and abused were reacting or displaying emotion inappropriately, rather than that the motivation or norming behind the behaviour was at fault. For example, Trent described his mother as drawn to violent, alcoholic men. She always seemed to go for these guys that didnt know how to express anything except by breaking stuff, yelling, hitting, you know. His further descriptions of his mothers boyfriends indicated an assumption that if these men had been raised with or taught proper means of dealing with their frustrations and emotions, the abuse to him and his mother would have been lessened or eliminated. This idea was supported by at least one social worker, who suggested counselling for Trent, his mother, and the then boyfriend as one possible way of addressing the abusive situation. Several participants did bring feminist theory and thought into group discussion, pointing out, for example, that dominance or aggression by men in any form was unhealthy, and questioning why it was only seen as unhealthy by most of the social workers they had encountered, and bothers they knew in the community, when physical violence was actually involved. There was a related discussion, albeit brief, about the unwillingness of neighbours, relatives, and others in the community, such as members of the same church, to intervene in the domestic violence situation. Participants indicated their perception that whilst this was often due to a fear of getting involved or knowing how to help the situation, there were repeated occurrences in everyones experience where an unwillingness to intervene derived from others implications that the man of the house had some right to choose the way in which the household operated, or that he had a right to discipline his wife /girlfriend and children as he saw fit. Wendy reports hearing an aunt state Well, its his family, their kids, she wants to stay with him, and dismiss the on-going violence as therefore an acceptable family lifestyle, or at least one in which none of the rest of the family should be expected to intervene. Participants then acknowledged this and several other systemic situations that perpetuated their abuse, such as reluctance of authority figures to continue questioning when initially told nothing was wrong, and unwillingness of police to intervene repeatedly. Similarly, regarding gender roles, discussion indicated a belief by most participants that their social workers believed a traditional stereotype of what was appropriate behaviour for a man and a woman, and that these behaviours were different. There were reports of acceptance of physical response as an appropriate masculine reaction, but the level of physical response not being considered appropriate. Male participants were encouraged to talk about their experiences, but report never being given permission to express fear, or an emotional response such as crying. One male participant reported starting to cry as part of a group experience, and being discouraged rather than encouraged to continue, whilst female members of the group were allowed to and even supported in such emotional expression. There were similar reports of various hegemonic ally feminine expressions, such as crying, fear, and nurturing behaviours, being supported and encouraged by social workers for male family members but not female, as well as an acceptance or assumption of weakness on the part of adult females who chose to remain in an abusive situation. The discussion then moved to the effect of traditional and feminist perspective on social work service. Participants overwhelmingly reported feeling better served when social workers sought to empower them and their families. This did usually involve practise of methods derived from a feminist view, such as the use of reflective journaling and support groups, as well as encouragement from the social workers tithe mother that she could, indeed, survive and prosper outside the domestic violence situation, that she did have the inner reserves to address the situation and move to a healthier lifestyle, and that societal pressure to be with a man, either as a romantic partner or as a father / father-figure for children was not necessary for successful life. Participants also report feeling personally empowered by such encouragement, and therefore able to support their mothers in attempts to leave relationships. From their own study in social work theory, focus group participants were able to briefly discuss the ramifications of the patriarchal societal power structure on a womans decision to stay in a violent situation. One issue brought up included the perception that society will view a woman as a failure and undesirable if she does not have aromatic relationship with a man in her life. A number of women participants in the group reported feeling similar pressure to maintain romantic relationship with a man in their life, regardless of their other commitments or interests, and an expectation that they would not be successful women if they did not ultimately get married and have children. When questioned by other participants, the three male participants reported not feeling such pressures. Another issue raised was the mothers perception that they needed a father figure to successfully raise children, particularly boys. This was perpetuated in the life experiences of group participants even though the men occupying these roles were viewed by the male participants as destructive, rather than constructive, influences. Issues of supporting disciplining children and managing household operations were also indicated, as was the financial support provided by the bitterer. The group indicated all these issues were societal, rather than individual, and lack of addressing of them affected the effectiveness of the social services they had received. Overall, the participants were generally positive about at least one social worker with whom they had a relationship during their teenage years. Participants typically felt feeling most encouraged and best served by those social workers who did not present themselves as being distant or above the participants and their families, and who did not overly emphasise their familys issues from a perspective of individual dysfunction. These findings indicated that a feminist interactive construct, which avoids power over methods and practise is perceived to be most effective by domestic violence survivors. Recommendations It is recommended from findings of this study that social workers are first provided greater exposure to and training in feminist methods and theory as it relates to their practical, day-to-day practise. For example, all participants reported some positive experiences in response to reflective methods such as reflective journaling and survivor support groups. Considerations of ways to more greatly include such methods in typical practise are therefore indicated. Of greater concern are the systems in which social workers operate. Whilst most of the social workers in these focus group participants experiences had some familiarity with feminist theory or methods, as indicated by their emphasis on empowerment or use of specific strategies, there is something within the government-sponsored social services structure that prohibits practise truly based on feminist tenets. A sharp contrast was provided by the young woman served at a progressive, private service, where feminist theory was the obvious framework on which service was based. She was by far the most positive about her experiences and workers, and reported insights, understanding and empowerment to change not consistently reported by other focus group participants. It therefore recommended that more research be pursued as to what factors constrain social workers from functioning from a more feminist framework. Issues such as time (many social workers have far more people to see and serve than they would like to have, or often feel they can serve effectively), lack of material resources such as appropriate space, lack of effective training, or discouragement in such regards from supervisors or others in power. Specifically identifying relevant factors could then form a framework for progressing with change in social work practise within a typical government service organisation. It is further recommended that individual social workers consider what constraints they personally work under, and what constraints they place upon themselves as a result of the greater power structures of our society. Becoming aware of personal bias regarding traditional gender roles, for example, would assist the individual social worker in providing a more empowering and less conscripting environment in dealing with those they serve. The participants in the focus group, for example, agreed they were given issues to think about by the group interaction, and that greater consideration of pressures to conform in society and the assumed power of males would be items that, through analysis, could improve their social work practise. Similarly, becoming more cognisant of the far-reaching influences of patriarchy and accepted oppression of women in our society would also provide foundation from which social workers can both educate their clients and move them and others towards political action to correct such systemic issues. Conclusion In conclusion, whilst feminist theory and constructs have made evaluable impact on social work practise, those being served believe they would be better served by a greater inclusion and reliance on such practises. Social workers may personally or professionally espouse feminist framework, but are less likely to employ it in practise. This deprives both them and their clients of the most beneficial service. Social workers need to become more focused on relating the experiences of individuals to the broader power structures in our society, and dealing with their experiences in the context of these structures rather than as individual or pathological difficulties. Social workers, particularly in domestic violence situations, need to be cognisant of the effect of hegemonic gender roles on perpetuating such violence, as well as their own conscious or unconscious subscription touch roles. In short, feminism has made a valuable impact on social work practise, but could still be employed even more effectively to not only address the problems of individuals, but to work towards eliminating the patriarchal systems of oppression in our society that make situations such as domestic violence so common place. References Barns, A. 2003. Social Work, Young Women, and Femininity. Affiliate, Vol. 18, No. 2, Summer 2003, pp. 148-164. Barretti,M. 2001. Social Work, Women, and Feminism: A Review of Social WorkJournals, 1988-1997. Affilia, Vol. 16, No. 3, Fall 2001, pp. 266-294. Bell, P. and MacLeod, J. 1988. Bridging the Gap: Feminist DevelopmentWork in Glasgow. Feminist Review, No. 28, Spring 1988, pp. 136-143. Bem, S.L. 1995. 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Responding to Oppression and Abuse: A FeministChallenge to Clinical Social Work. Affilia, Vol. 15, No. 3, Fall 2000,pp. 369-389. Dominelli, L. and McLeod, E. 1989. Feminist Social Work. Macmillan Education: London. Hammer, J. and Statham, D. 1999. Women and social work: Towards a woman-centered practice (2nd ed.). Macmillan: London. Hawkesworth, M. 1997. Confounding Gender. Signs, Vol. 22, No. 3, Spring 1997, pp. 649-685. Marchant, H. 1986. Gender, systems thinking and radical social work.In H. Marchant and B. Wearing (Eds.), Gender reclaimed: Women in socialwork, Hale and Iremonger: Sydney, Australia , pp. 14-32. Moylan, P. 2003. Teaching Peace: The Challenge of GenderedAssumptions. Peace and Change, Vol. 28, No. 4, October 2003, pp.570-574. Rabrenovic, G. and Roskos, L. 2001. Introduction: Civil Society,Feminism, and the Gendered Politics of War and Peace. NWSA Journal,Vol. 13, No. 2, Summer, pp. 40-54. Scott, J.W. 1988. Gender and the Politics of History. Columbia University Press, New York. Tickner, A.J. 1999. Why Women Cant Run the World: InternationalPolitics According to Francis Fukuyama. International Studies Review,Vol. 1, No. 3, pp. 311.